By Darini Rajasingham-Senanayake –

“The environment is not collateral damage. It is a new front line of hybrid warfare, and defending it is quite literally defending life itself,” affirmed Ruslan Spirin, a Ukrainian diplomat based in Kyiv recently.[1] The Environmental Modification Convention (ENMOD), formally the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, is an international treaty prohibiting the military or other hostile use of Geoengineering and environmental modification techniques.

ENMOD opened for signature on 18 May 1977 in Geneva and entered into force on 5 October 1978. ENMOD emerged from US weather warfare, specifically Operation Popeye, to flood Vietnam and the Ho Chi Minh trail during the Vietnam War. Cloud seeding was used to extend the monsoons in the hope of drowning the Vietnamese troops fighting American military in South Vietnam in the 1970s in mud and impeding their supply chains.

Recently, the Indian Ocean region has again become the epicenter of Monsoon and weather modification geoengineering. We again saw monsoon related weather warfare in Sri Lanka just as it was hosting Indian, Russian and other Indian Ocean Navies. A ‘cyclone’ with a very mysterious trajectory and even more mysterious impacts in Sri Lanka was recently blamed on “climate change” which has become a front for many distortions. It was environmentally damaging weather warfare or geoengineering which has continued to this date damaging the environment.

However, few in the UN’s climate crisis Conference of the Parties (CoP) Summits mention the grave threat of geoengineering and weather warfare, distracted with targeting and blaming the fossil fuel lobby.

While state parties avoid the military complex it is puzzling that the gravy train of NGOs and civil society climate activists ever refer to ENMOD or the environmental pollution caused by the war machine – the tanks, bombs, mines, submarines, aircrafts, missiles, drones, aircraft carriers.

Indeed it appears that the United Nations under the current Secretary General Antonio Gutterez has abdicated the UN’s primary responsibility of maintaining World Peace, in the interest of Climate Crisis Gaslighting, enabling the UNDP to market Green and Blue Bonds scams with, Debt for Nature Swaps or sustainability bonds, while the Electric Car companies and solar panel manufactures benefit from the Climate crisis narrative, while mining rare earth to cause more climate crisis!

Indeed, few of the UN’s CoP regulars seem to have ever heard of ENMOD at a time when the damage cause by wars and the Military Industrial Complex to the earth far exceeds any other industrial source of pollution to the planet. The recent UN CoP Summit in Belem was silent on the threat of weather warfare and the environmental impacts of the US military business industrial complex/ war machine which hit a trillion dollar budget this year. The US is the largest military business industrial research and development complex by far.

While technologies such as cloud seeding date to the 1970s, generating earthquakes and tsunamis with nuclear and hydrogen bomb explosions was done by the United States in the Bikini Atol of the Marshall Islands in the early 1950s. The Atol remains is uninhabitable.[2]

IN 2004 The Indian Ocean was hit by a n earthquake and tsunami off the coast of Sumatra, in Ache Province. Curiously, the monsoons of 2025 also hit the same communities in Ache and there was simultaneously a Tsunami warning issued!

Now in Sri Lanka with 60 US air force officers purportedly for humanitarian aid, the C-130 Hercules aircraft that flies into storms, including the specialized WC-130 weather reconnaissance variant, have been used for cloud seeding operations. The aircraft is valued for its durability, large cargo capacity, and ability to operate in diverse conditions.

ENMOD

The Convention bans weather warfare, which is the use of weather modification techniques for the purposes of inducing damage or destruction. The Convention on Biological Diversity of 2010 would also ban some forms of weather modification or geoengineering.[3]

Is it an accident that in an era of Unnatural Natural Disaster such as so-called Cyclone Ditwah that recently hit US dollar Eurobond-debt trapped in Sri Lanka, few environmental activists and NGOs on the green gravy train I know of the history of Geoengineering and weather warfare by the United States in Vietanam and the Pacific Ocean?

and other flashfloods that hit the same countries that were struck by the Asia Earthquake and Tsunami disaster The Convention bans weather warfare, which is the use of weather modification techniques for the purposes of inducing damage or destruction. An analysis of the

Dr. Abhishek Gandhi Advocate, Delhi High Court Home Our Team Contact

July 23, 2025 9:34 AM

A Treaty Worth Strengthening Introduction: War, Weather, and the ENMOD Convention

In the modern world, where technology has advanced to unprecedented levels, humanity now faces an eerie question: Can nature itself be turned into a weapon? The answer came into alarming focus during the Cold War era, prompting the international community to act. Thus was born the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, commonly known as the ENMOD Convention (1977).

Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1976, and opened for signature in Geneva on May 18, 1977, the ENMOD Convention came into force on October 5, 1978. This landmark treaty is a cornerstone of international humanitarian law, uniquely designed to address a very modern threat — the militarization of natural processes like weather, oceans, and the earth’s ecosystems. In this article, we will delve into the history, significance, structure, criticisms, and continuing relevance of the ENMOD Convention, while answering frequently asked questions for legal and academic clarity.

Historical Background of the ENMOD Convention

The seeds of ENMOD were sown during the Vietnam War, where allegations surfaced about the United States’ use of cloud-seeding operations (Project Popeye) to prolong the monsoon season over enemy supply routes. This use of environmental modification for military objectives raised serious ethical, legal, and environmental concerns. With growing public outcry and a rising awareness of the destructive potential of manipulating nature, the United Nations began considering legal instruments to restrict such activities. The Cold War’s geopolitical tension, paired with the potential for climate modification to escalate conflicts, pushed nations to agree on a preventive legal mechanism — thus giving rise to the ENMOD Convention. What is the ENMOD Convention?

The ENMOD Convention (1977) is an international treaty prohibiting the use of environmental modification techniques for military or hostile purposes. It obligates state parties not to engage in any environmental manipulation — such as changing weather patterns, ocean currents, or geological structures — to cause destruction, damage, or injury to another State Party. The Convention acknowledges the peaceful use of environmental techniques, such as for agriculture or climate adaptation, but draws a clear line when such use turns hostile or poses risks to human or environmental safety.

Core Objectives of the ENMOD Convention To Prevent the Weaponization of Nature: By banning hostile uses of weather modification or environmental engineering. To Promote International Peace and Security: Through the limitation of emerging environmental warfare techniques. To Establish Legal Norms: Around the definition and use of environmental modification in armed conflict. To Create Accountability: Among nations for actions that could result in large-scale environmental destruction.

Key Definitions and Provisions

Environmental Modification Techniques (Article II) Defined as: “Any technique for changing — through the deliberate manipulation of natural processes — the dynamics, composition or structure of the Earth, including its biota, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, or of outer space.” Examples may include: Induced earthquakes or tsunamis Artificial weather control (e.g., excessive rainfall or drought) Altering ocean currents Triggering volcanic eruptions Changes in ionospheric conditions 2. Prohibition Clause (Article I) The heart of the Convention, this article prohibits the military or hostile use of such techniques that have: Widespread Long-lasting, or Severe effects on the environment or populations. 3. Permissibility of Peaceful Use (Preamble & Article III) The Convention allows for peaceful applications of environmental modification — such as combating desertification or controlling pests — so long as these do not result in harmful consequences to other states. 4. Consultations and Complaints (Article V & VI) States can consult each other on issues arising from the Convention. Complaints can be lodged with the United Nations Security Council, which is empowered to investigate violations. ENMOD vs. Other Environmental & Warfare Treaties

The ENMOD Convention stands at a unique intersection between environmental protection and international humanitarian law (IHL). Treaty Purpose Difference from ENMOD Geneva Conventions Regulate conduct of war Does not specifically cover environmental modification Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) Bans chemical weapons

ENMOD targets techniques rather than substances. Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) Prohibits biological weapons ENMOD is broader in scope, including geophysical tools.ENMOD deals with deliberate manipulation for harm Compliance and Monitoring Challenges While the ENMOD Convention sets forth a moral and legal framework, its enforcement mechanisms are limited. There is no dedicated body to verify or monitor compliance, unlike the Chemical Weapons Convention which has the OPCW (Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons).

Dual Use Technologies

Furthermore: Verification is difficult, especially with dual-use technologies (e.g., cloud seeding can be both peaceful and hostile). Evidence gathering is complex, as attribution for natural disasters remains scientifically and politically challenging.

States Parties and Global Participation

As of now, 78 countries are parties to the ENMOD Convention, including major powers like the United States, Russia, China, and India. However, some countries have neither signed nor ratified the treaty, limiting its universal applicability. It remains one of the lesser-known but crucial disarmament instruments in the international legal framework. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) Q1.

Is the ENMOD Convention still relevant in 2025? Absolutely. With growing capabilities in geoengineering and climate intervention, the line between peaceful and hostile use of environmental modification is becoming increasingly thin. ENMOD provides a legal and ethical framework for countries to restrain weaponized climate action. Q2. Does ENMOD apply to non-state actors like terrorist organizations? The Convention is a state-level treaty, so it does not directly bind non-state actors. However, states are expected to prevent their territory or resources from being used by such actors in violation of ENMOD norms. Q3. Can ENMOD be invoked in climate change litigation? Not directly. The ENMOD Convention deals with deliberate hostile actions, whereas climate change is a result of industrial emissions and negligence but has relevance for new patterns of Hybrid Warfare. However, the ethical principles may be cited to highlight state responsibility in international environmental discourse. Q4. Are there any real-life cases where ENMOD has been violated? There is no officially confirmed violation, although the historical example of Project Popeye is widely seen as the trigger for ENMOD’s creation.

Modern technologies are kept in check more by deterrence and political consequences than by formal ENMOD sanctions. Q5. How does ENMOD relate to space and extraterrestrial domains? Interestingly, ENMOD covers modifications of the outer space environment as well. This anticipates futuristic threats involving space-based weapons that could influence earth systems. Q6. What is the punishment for violating the ENMOD Convention? There is no specified punitive mechanism in the Convention itself. Violations can be referred to the United Nations Security Council, which may impose sanctions or take other measures under international law. Q7. Can climate engineering or solar geoengineering violate ENMOD? If such techniques are used with hostile intent or cause widespread, long-lasting, or severe damage, then yes — they could potentially violate ENMOD provisions. Q8. Who monitors global compliance with ENMOD? There is no dedicated treaty body. However, state parties can hold consultations, and complaints can be brought before the UN Security Council. In practice, compliance is largely voluntary and diplomatic. Modern Challenges and the Future of ENMOD With the rise of: Geoengineering proposals to combat climate change, Military interest in weather-control research, and Unpredictable natural disasters where attribution is difficult, …

ENMOD Convention faces new interpretive challenges

Artificial rain induction, carbon capture, or stratospheric aerosol injection could be considered double-edged swords. If used with peaceful intent, they are permissible. However, if misused in war or cross-border disputes, they could come under ENMOD scrutiny. Updating ENMOD to include clearer mechanisms for: Verification Transparency Accountability …is the need of the hour, especially as climate security becomes a pillar of international peace.

Conclusion: A Treaty Worth Strengthening

The ENMOD Convention (1977) may not be the most famous international treaty, but its purpose is profoundly relevant in today’s world. It reminds us that even the clouds and the oceans must not be weaponized, and that science, for all its power, must remain within the bounds of ethics and legality. For advocates, environmentalists, policymakers, and the global citizenry, ENMOD stands as a cautionary shield, warning against the misuse of our planet’s very fabric. In an age where environmental security is national security, this often-overlooked treaty is not just a relic of Cold War anxiety — it is a living document of global responsibility.

[1] https://www.washington)mes.com/news/2025/nov/28/weaponized-weather-emerges-new-hybrid-warfare-tool/

[2] https://www.history.com/ar)cles/nuclear-bomb-tests-bikini-atoll-facts

[3] Cloud seeding over Kuching skies in a C-130 Hercules
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